The novel, a linguistic art form that captures and reflects the whole through its parts, and extracts a cross-section of life, possesses a rich, varied, and vibrant stylistic characteristic that necessitates the application of artistic talent and skill in its creation. This article comprehensively summarizes the key points of traditional novel writing from various aspects, including character-centric storytelling; structural arrangement; the use of typification to create typical characters; natural and social descriptions; detailed descriptions; and narrative perspective. Novels aspiring writers can gain specific insights into novel writing techniques from this.
First, one must be adept at character-centric storytelling and meticulously organizing the plot
. A plot is indispensable in any novel. Contemporary writer Wang Meng once pointed out: "A so-called novel without a plot actually uses small plots to replace the overall plot; a novel absolutely without a plot is impossible." Some critics say his novels are "without characters, conflict, or plot," to which he replies, "Wouldn't that be like drawing a talisman? Actually, I've never written any 'three-no' novels. All my novels have characters, conflict, and plot." He continues, "I don't believe in novels without characters, conflict, or plot, and I've never done that."
Why is plot indispensable? In a novel, plot plays at least four important roles: ① The various materials of a novel are often organized through the thread of plot development. "A suitable plot can weave together a jumbled mess of ideas, observations, and acquired knowledge," and "it can act as an organizing yeast." (A. Tolstoy) ② The characters' personalities are revealed through the plot. Only as the plot develops can the characters' personalities be manifested and developed. ③ The plot of a novel often carries certain social and historical content, and the theme of the novel is often expressed through the plot. ④ The plot of a novel can evoke resonant and evaluative emotions in readers, enhancing the novel's artistic appeal and attracting readers.
Before the 19th century, the plot of a novel was simply the story it narrated. Novels of that time often unfolded events sequentially based on the characters' experiences; this sequential unfolding of events constituted the plot. Since the 19th century, novels have undergone significant development, differing from the traditional "story-based" format. The concepts of "story" and "plot" have acquired new definitions. A "story" generally refers to a series of events arranged chronologically. A "plot," on the other hand, generally refers to a series of events arranged according to cause and effect. As E.M. Forster pointed out in *Aspects of the Novel*: "We define a story as a chronological narrative of events. A plot is also a narrative of events, but with an emphasis on cause and effect. 'The king died, and then the queen died' is a story; 'The king died, and the queen died of grief' is a plot. In a plot, the chronological order is still preserved, but it is obscured by cause and effect." In other words, a story emphasizes chronology, while a plot emphasizes cause and effect. According to this definition, a story may form the plot framework of a novel, but the plot is different from a story. Taking Lu Xun's "The Storm" as an example, the plot revolves around the controversy surrounding the cutting of queues. It begins with Qi Jin's anxieties, then depicts the panic of Qi Jin and his wife, before describing the return to normalcy—this is the story. Simultaneously, the lament of Old Lady Jiu Jin subtly permeates the entire novel. Old Lady Jiu Jin's repeated nagging about "each generation being worse than the last" is difficult to place within the story of queue cutting, yet it is an integral part of the plot, demonstrating her indifference and lack of concern regarding the initial upheaval and subsequent calm. This plot seamlessly blends with the story of Qi Jin and his wife, revealing that Zhang Xun's restoration was merely a farce, and that rural China after the Xinhai Revolution remained in decline, with peasants still ignorant and backward.
Modern novels have largely abandoned the single method of a narrator fully describing the story, often breaking the sequential structure of the plot. However, the use of various techniques still allows the works to maintain chronological continuity and plot integrity. Even in psychological novels that primarily employ a "stream of consciousness" approach, where time and space appear inverted, with past, present, and future intertwined and disordered, and the atmosphere, characters, locations, and specific environments of different eras overlapping and interwoven, the plot remains a cohesive whole, evolving according to the characters' stream of consciousness and the causal relationships of events.
Writers generally exhibit two tendencies in plot development: "intensification" or "de-emphasis." Novels with "intensified" plots often utilize sharp, thrilling, and bizarre events to reveal character traits. Authors frequently place characters in sharp, harsh conflicts to temper and test them, creating a tense, intense, and dramatic atmosphere with dramatic climaxes. The advantage of this type of novel is its captivating and gripping nature. The disadvantage is that its overemphasis on coincidence somewhat diminishes realism, making it feel like a mere "drama," too dramatic and often losing the breadth of life and a sense of detached perspective. Sometimes, this overemphasis on plot can also render characters inactive, hindering the development of their personalities. Novels with a "downplayed" plot eschew numerous coincidences, chance encounters, life-or-death conflicts, and grand suspense. Instead, they strive to depict the richness, simplicity, and meaning inherent in the ordinary. For example, in Sun Li's *Lotus Pond*, several rural women, under the pretext of delivering clothes, attempt to visit their husbands at a military base on the lake. Halfway there, their small boat encounters Japanese soldiers. They hide in the lotus pond, but the Japanese ships catch up. The men, lying in ambush, sink the Japanese ships. The author describes the battle in only about a hundred words, focusing instead on the beauty of the Baiyangdian water town and the women's charm. While a downplayed plot preserves the natural essence of life, it can easily become loose and dull if not handled well. Strictly speaking, the terms "emphasis" and "downplaying" are merely different aesthetic pursuits of the authors and do not determine the quality of the work itself. A good plot, whether "downplayed" or "emphasized," should be realistic, vivid, revealing character traits and showcasing certain aspects of social life. No one wants to read a fabricated, outdated story. No one wants to read a superficial plot that is detached from the characters' realities and fails to reflect the content of social life.
Writing a novel generally stems from specific life experiences. The author is moved by certain events or characters in real life and feels that these feelings can be turned into a novel. Based on this, a relatively complete plot is extracted.
Common methods for extracting plot in writing include:
(I) Based on the main plot, enriching it with details
. The author discovers an event in life that is relatively complete and has certain significance. The author often doesn't make major changes to such events, but rather fully utilizes their accumulated knowledge to enrich and flesh out the event. For example, when Wang Meng talked about "The Lobbyists Arrive," he pointed out that the story outline of this novel was based on hearsay: "In just a few days, more than two hundred people came to act as lobbyists in order to fire or punish a worker." When the author wrote it, he only changed the number of lobbyists to 199, without making any changes to the story outline. Instead, he fully mobilized his own life experience to enrich and flesh out the plot, giving it flesh and blood.
(II) Changing the appearance and repositioning the keyi=12> The author sees or hears a story in life, finds it interesting, but feels that a certain aspect is not ideal, so he slightly modifies the story. This is similar to the creation of Gogol's "The Overcoat." Once, Gogol was chatting with some friends when he heard a joke: A poor minor official, who loved hunting birds, saved up two hundred rubles to buy a fine hunting rifle. However, on his first hunting trip by boat, the rifle was blocked by reeds and fell into the water. The official was heartbroken and fell ill upon returning home, unable to get out of bed. Fortunately, his colleagues pooled their money to buy him a new rifle, saving his life. Gogol later wrote "The Overcoat," using this joke, changing the hunting rifle to an overcoat—a necessity of life—and the reeds blocking the rifle in the water to a robbery, and the minor official's fate to a tragedy, thus making the plot more realistic, typical, and thought-provoking. (III) Grafting, Integration, and Synthesis
The author synthesizes numerous people and events from different times and places, which he hears or witnesses, into an organic whole through processing and transformation. For example, in the short story "Selling the Donkey": Old Man Sun San mistakenly enters a crematorium, an ominous sign that perfectly aligns with his fear of policy changes. He decides to sell his donkey, but upon arriving at the market, he encounters Old Veterinarian Lao Shang, who not only cures the donkey's illness with his "divine whip" but also cures Old Man Sun San's mental ailment, finally leading him to decide not to sell the donkey. According to the author, this story is a synthesis of two pieces of real-life material. One was a story he heard eight or nine years ago during casual conversation: an old man in a certain place fell asleep on his flatbed cart on his way back from pulling a cart, his donkey pulling him home. Halfway there, they encountered a donkey cart carrying a dead person to be cremated, and the donkey carrying the old man followed it into the crematorium. The old man awoke with a start and, furious, beat the donkey severely. As he was gathering the reins to go home, he was unexpectedly kicked in the forehead by a frightened donkey and died on the spot. He was indeed cremated. Another piece of real-life material came from the author's observations during his time in the countryside. He met an old veterinarian who came from a wealthy peasant family and had raised many mules and horses before liberation. When livestock fell ill, he liked to observe them carefully, consult with knowledgeable people, and then try to treat them himself. Over time, he accumulated a wealth of medical skills. After liberation, he practiced medicine full-time and later became the head of the commune's veterinary station, where he gained considerable reputation and had a cheerful personality. His medical skills had many unique aspects; one example is his treatment of dislocated hips. He didn't use needles, medicine, or massage, but instead stood diagonally opposite the animal and suddenly whipped it, causing the animal's center of gravity to shift backward, allowing the hip bone to reset itself using its own strength. These two stories are unrelated, but the author modified and combined them to form the plot of the novel.
(iv) Connecting Fragments Based on Emotion:
Authors accumulate many vivid details and fragments in their lives; however, these details and fragments lack direct causal connections. At this point, the author often connects them into an organic whole through the threads of their thoughts and feelings. For example, Shi Tiesheng's *My Distant Qingping Bay* is written in this way. From a partial perspective, each fragment seems disjointed and scattered, but when viewed as a whole, it possesses a sense of unity. According to the author, when writing this novel, he did not intentionally fabricate a story, but rather let the details flow from his heart one by one based on his emotions.
(v) Deducing Step-by-Step Based on Cause and Effect:
In life, the author obtains a fragment, a scene, or a detail that he finds interesting but lacks relative independence and is not yet fully developed. Therefore, based on the possibilities, hints, and prescriptive qualities provided by the fragment itself, he traces back and lays the groundwork for its development to the present, and speculates on its outcome. For example, in Gao Xiaosheng's novel "Chen Huansheng Goes to the City," he explained that his initial motivation for writing the story stemmed from his own experience staying in a high-class guesthouse and witnessing the stark contrast between the guesthouse and the temporary poverty of the farmers. He noted that a single night's stay cost a farmer nearly ten days' wages. Feeling this disparity was too great, he envisioned a farmer spending a night in a high-class guesthouse, experiencing, performing, and comparing the luxurious sofas, beds, and carpets. Thus, he decided to have Chen Huansheng, a "leaky household" (a term referring to a poorly managed household), stay there. However, Chen Huansheng couldn't normally enter the city, so the author had him enter after the policy was relaxed to sell oil ropes. Selling oil ropes still didn't connect him to a high-class guesthouse; an introduction from someone of high status was necessary, leading to the introduction of Secretary Wu. Why would Secretary Wu introduce Chen Huansheng to a high-class hotel? There must be a special reason, so the author arranged for Chen Huansheng to fall ill; moreover, the illness had to be severe and quick to heal, hence the arrangement of a severe cold. Why did Chen Huansheng catch a severe cold? Because he hadn't bought a hat. Chen Huansheng checked into a high-class guesthouse, and Secretary Wu was in a hurry to attend a meeting. Thus, Chen Huansheng was able to simply stay in the guesthouse and have ample time to experience the "high-class" life. From the author's conception process, the method of causal deduction is used.
(VI) Based on personality,
infer and speculate. The author has a relatively mature character image in mind. In the conception, this character is placed in a specific interpersonal relationship and environment. Based on the character's own personality, the author speculates and guesses what the character will do, and thus conceives the plot of the work. For example, in Chekhov's "The Death of a Petty Official", it is about a petty official who accidentally splashed some sneezes on the neck of a general in the front row while watching a play. He was terrified and apologized to the general repeatedly. In the end, he was scared to death by this incident. The plot of this novel is entirely deduced from the character's personality. If it were a different character, such as Zhang Fei or Li Kui, the general would definitely be scared to death; if it were Ah Q, he would probably curse "the son beats the father" in his heart after being scolded by the general, and seek relief. However, for a minor official raised in the servile Russian society of the 19th century, his fate was not only fear and apology, but also death. The development of the plot in a novel is always a result of the development of the characters' personalities. Generally speaking, there is a difference between deducing from a character's personality and deducing from cause and effect. The cause-and-effect deduction we usually talk about refers to a relatively obvious and direct causal chain from cause to effect or from effect to cause. It is often simple and linear; a certain cause can usually lead to a clear result, without including many complex causes and changes. Human personality, however, is a highly complex composite, always full of various contradictions and struggles, often varying with time and person, constantly changing, without a fixed pattern or procedure. Compared to simple cause-and-effect logic, it possesses a greater richness and complexity.
Regardless of the method used to refine and weave the plot, the relationship between characters and plot must be handled well. Common textbooks define the plot as the history of character development, which is both correct and incorrect. If "events arise from people," and "events reveal people," then the plot naturally becomes a history of the characters' character development. However, if the plot focuses on events rather than people, concentrating only on the events' entertainment value and legendary aspects, it falls into the trap of "plot for plot's sake," making it difficult to become a "history of character development" and thus unlikely to evoke profound aesthetic appreciation. Therefore, a good plot should be a history of character development.
Secondly, one must be adept at structuring a short story.
A short story is a linguistic art that uses small details to reflect the whole, requiring rigorous selection of material and deep exploration. While it doesn't necessarily have to be a major social issue, it must reflect significant social meaning. Simultaneously, its structural arrangement should demonstrate ingenuity and meticulousness.
Generally speaking, the structure of a short story should not be overly complex, the process not too long, the number of characters not too many, the elaboration not too detailed, the expression not too explicit, and the climax not one after another. It should be concise and focused, conveying much with little. Otherwise, it easily becomes a compressed novella. The common structural forms of short stories are as follows:
(I) Plot structure
The plot structure uses the occurrence and development of events as its structural line. The unfolding of a novel is entirely based on the causal relationships between events. The occurrence of events often manifests as a series of causal chains, linking the preceding and following events, closely connected and interdependent. Skilled authors often twist and reverse the plot, creating a sense of unfamiliarity and surprise for the reader, yet the novel remains built upon a fairly complete story structure. The unfolding of a plot structure generally includes a beginning, development, climax, and ending; some also include a prologue and an epilogue. Based on the thread of plot development, it can be divided into single-line structure, double-line structure, and triple-line structure. A single-line structure often involves one person, one event, and one thread running throughout, with a simple plot. While there may be occasional twists, turns, and ups and downs, the plot thread remains singular regardless of the changes or repetitions. A double-line structure is characterized by intersecting or parallel plots; the former is exemplified by Lu Xun's "Medicine," and the latter by "The Wheat Harvester." "The Wheat Harvesters" tells the story of a father and son who go to work as day laborers. Arriving at different homes, the father, struggling with hardship, loses his self-respect, steals a watch, is caught, and returns home filled with guilt. The son, on the other hand, is stirred by the new life, yearning for love and freedom, ultimately succumbing to traditional morality. The author intertwines two otherwise independent stories, creating a unified whole with two spaces, two groups of characters, two different interpersonal relationships, and different emotional pursuits, thus constructing a dual reality. This structure weakens the closed nature of a story told from beginning to end, giving the novel broad social content and a modern sense of time and space. Short stories can also have three or more plot lines. Sometimes, authors intertwine three or more plot lines, creating a larger story within a smaller one, such as in "The Corner Forgotten by Love." Other times, several plot lines are interwoven and advanced in parallel, forming a network structure, such as in Wang Anyi's "Random Notes from a Small Courtyard." Generally speaking, structures with three or more plot lines are more difficult for beginners to grasp.
Plot structure is the most basic structural method in short stories. Its advantages are action, engagement, and alignment with general aesthetic habits. However, it also has limitations: ① Centered on events, the author's attention is focused on the vividness and interest of the plot itself. If not handled well, this can weaken character development. ② The development of characters' personalities or the expression of the author's emotions require sufficient space. However, plot structure emphasizes the vertical connection of events, limiting the scope for horizontal character development and prohibiting deviation from the specific temporal and spatial constraints of the plot. The author must constantly grasp and advance the plot's threads, thus limiting creative talent. ③ To maintain the story's integrity, the author often has to cram in numerous interludes, which often lack brilliance and are detrimental to character development. ④ Plot structure distills the kaleidoscopic richness of life into a complete life process, requiring all elements of the novel to conform to the causal chain of plot development. This can easily compromise the authenticity and richness of life, giving a fabricated and distorted feel. These limitations are points to pay special attention to when arranging plot structures.
(II) Prose Structure
Some people feel that plot-driven novels are too contrived and unrealistic, and therefore try to avoid fantastical, dramatic plots, striving to depict life in its natural form. This has led to a type of novel resembling prose. The prose structure abandons the plot pattern of beginning, development, climax, and resolution. It lacks the common tense and focused plots, and doesn't rely on suspense or gripping dramatic effects. It appears to consist of seemingly fragmented pieces, almost like everyday life, without clearly showing "introduction," "development," "transition," and "conclusion." It's like a tree, with branches naturally extending in all directions, each with its own space, and the temporal and spatial relationships are loosely arranged. However, upon closer examination, there is an inherent connection within this relaxed and natural flow, somewhat like the "loose form but cohesive spirit" of prose. Works like Sun Li's *Lotus Pond*, Wang Zengqi's *Receiving the Precepts* and *Chronicles of Da Nao*, and Japanese writer Shiga Naoya's *To Abashiri* all belong to this category. The
prose structure often gives a sense of natural beauty. However, because it intentionally abandons dramatic plots and downplays the direct and obvious causal relationships between events, it is more difficult to write. It abandons gripping storylines, requiring deeper, more beautiful, and more believable writing, making it more engaging and captivating. While it is open and free-flowing, it cannot be chaotic or loose; it must possess an overall organic quality.
(III) Psychological Structure
Psychological structure, also known as "stream of consciousness structure," "emotional structure," "mental state structure," or "psychoanalytic structure," is a newly emerging structural method in modern novels. It does not arrange the structure according to the causal laws and temporal relationships of things. Instead, it organizes the material according to the flow of the characters' psychological activities, connecting life fragments through the characters' memories, associations, flashes of thought, inner monologues, hallucinations, dreams, and other inner activities. In this structure, the traditional plot is no longer visible; inner order replaces the order of events, psychological time and space replace physical time and space, and life scenes, fragments, and details are mainly presented through the screen of the characters' minds. This presentation involves swirling, reversing, light and shadow, leaps, the inversion of time and the overlap of space, and the decomposition and recombination of time and space. Psychological structure is a primary structural method used in psychological novels, but it differs from other psychological novels. Psychological novels primarily focus on the psychology of characters, while psychological structures sometimes emphasize the expression of psychological states and sometimes reflect real life. For example, Wang Meng's *The Sound of Spring* and Ru Zhijuan's *The Story That Was Edited Wrong* both employ psychological structures, but their emphases differ. The
"psychological structure" used by contemporary Chinese writers also differs from the "psychological structure" techniques used by Western modernist "stream of consciousness" writers.
Overall, they all use the flow of character consciousness as the structural framework of their novels; the description of realistic scenes serves only as a support point for the flow of character consciousness; the inversion and fusion of time, the leaping interweaving of free-associative plots, and the psychological monologue in the form of psychological analysis are also common techniques they employ. However, modernist writers emphasize that the flow of consciousness is illogical, irrational, and ever-changing. Therefore, the flow of consciousness in their works is fleeting, chaotic, and unrelated, like scattered colored dots flickering faintly, lacking vivid imagery and difficult to understand. Chinese writers, on the other hand, often depict the flow of consciousness as recollection, emotional, and rational, with relatively complete scenes. The connection of numerous psychological fragments often forms a complete plot, reflecting rich social life.
The advantages of psychological structure are: ① It structures the work through psychological processes, allowing everything in the work to be projected onto the protagonist's mental screen, abandoning the narrator's methods of narration, evaluation, description, and commentary, possessing a new quality absent in traditional novels. ② Psychological structure is not limited by objective time and space, allowing events occurring at different times and places to be simultaneously narrated, interwoven, or expanded radially, increasing the novel's expressive capacity. ③ Using the flow of consciousness as a structural framework, transitional descriptions that easily make the atmosphere dull and drawn-out can be omitted between scenes and between characters' actions, thus breaking free from the constraints of pursuing superficial coherence and completeness of the plot, and allowing for flexible use of material. This is conducive to revealing the inner world of the characters and can reveal the true nature of their minds quite fully. However, the limitations of the psychological structure are also obvious. First, works based on the psychological flow structure are prone to being written in a tedious, trivial, lengthy, and obscure manner, often requiring readers to re-examine and decipher them. On the other hand, in such works, what the characters think is often very subtle, but what they do is not very clear or distinct, making the characters' personalities introverted and vague. When using a psychological structure, special attention must be paid to overcoming these shortcomings.
(IV) Montage Structurei=11> Montage is a technique learned from film. It shares similarities with plot structure, often having a certain plot thread, but the methods of expressing the plot are different. Its plot often progresses forward in leaps and bounds through vivid, "shot-by-shot" fragments. Between fragments, the process explanations are cleanly and efficiently omitted. Simultaneously, it often uses time as the warp and space as the weft, interweaving life fragments from different times and places, showing the formation and development of characters' personalities and the coherence and advancement of the plot through the juxtaposition of groups of "shots." Using this structure can break through the limitations of time and space, flashing the main plot, omitting tedious process explanations, creating a brisk rhythm, strong visual imagery, natural interweaving, and variation without chaos. However, to master this structure, one must be familiar with film art. (V) Segment Structure
The structure consists of several relatively independent "plot segments." Using this structure, after describing a character or scene, the author often sets it aside and moves on to another character or scene, each part forming a self-contained whole with its own independent plot content, creating independent "plot segments." There is generally no direct connection between these segments, and transitional sentences are often omitted, seemingly combining completely unrelated segments in a disjointed manner. However, after reading the entire work, the reader can connect the content of each "unit" through the work's inherent, intangible ideological thread. An example is Zhang Shishan's *Four Unrelated Stories*. This structure also breaks away from the traditional model of a narrator telling a complete story, expanding the work's capacity. However, if not handled well, it can easily become very long. Special attention must be paid to the relationships between the "plot segments" during writing; there should be neither direct connections nor inherent links. At the same time, the complexity of the "plot segments" must be carefully managed, avoiding a cumbersome novella.
Short story structures are diverse, and when learning to write short stories, it's best to start with "horizontal" and "vertical" plot structures. Mastering these two basic forms provides a foundation for further improvement.
【II】Essential Knowledge for Novel Writing
【Four Famous Embroideries】Suzhou Embroidery (Suzhou), Hunan Embroidery (Hunan), Sichuan Embroidery (Sichuan), Guangdong Embroidery (Guangdong)
【Four Famous Fans】Sandalwood Fan (Jiangsu), Fire-Painted Fan (Guangdong), Bamboo Silk Fan (Sichuan), Silk Fan (Zhejiang)
【Four Famous Flowers】Peony (Heze, Shandong), Narcissus (Zhangzhou, Fujian), Chrysanthemum (Hangzhou, Zhejiang), Camellia (Kunming, Yunnan)
【Ten Famous Teas】West Lake Longjing (West Lake District, Hangzhou, Zhejiang), Biluochun (Biluo Peak, Dongting Mountain, Taihu Lake, Wuxian County, Jiangsu), Xinyang Maojian (Cheyun Mountain, Xinyang, Henan), Junshan Yinzhen (Junshan Mountain, Yueyang, Hunan), Liuan Guapian (Qiyun Mountain, Liuan and Jinzhai Counties, Anhui), Huangshan Maofeng (Huangshan Mountain, Shexian County, Anhui), Qimen Black Tea (Qimen County, Anhui), Duyun Maojian (Duyun County, Guizhou), Tieguanyin (Anxi County, Fujian), Wuyi Rock Tea (Chong'an County, Fujian)
[Poker Characters]
Jack of Spades: Hockla, a Dane and squire of Charles I
; Jack of Hearts: La Hire, a courtier of Charles VII;
Jack of Clubs: Lancelot, a famous knight of King Arthur; Jack of Diamonds: Roland,
a squire of Charles I; Queen of Spades
: Pallas.Asena, the Greek goddess of wisdom and war. Queen
of Hearts: Jules, a German and wife of Charles I.
Queen of Clubs: Queen of York of the House of Lancaster, England. Queen of
Diamonds: Sister of Joseph in the Old Testament of the Bible, Queen Rachel. King of Spades
: David, father of Solomon, King of Israel in the 10th century BC, skilled at playing the harp. King of Hearts
: Charles I, King Salman of the Franks.
King of Clubs: Alexander the Great of Macedon, the first ruler of the government. World King of Diamonds
: Julius Caesar, a famous Roman general and statesman who became a dictator after the unification of Rome.
[The Twelve Zodiac Animals]
[China] Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, Pig
[Egypt] Cow, Goat, Lion, Donkey, Crab, Snake, Dog, Cat, Crocodile, Flamingo, Monkey, Eagle
[France] Capricorn, Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius
[India] Rat of Chodura, Ox of Vikara, Lion of Kumbhira, Rabbit of Vajra, Dragon of Milara, Snake of Antira, Horse of Ammira, Goat of Sandila, Monkey of Indara, Garuda of Payira, Dog of Mahora, and Pig of Gendara
[Age Terms]
Swaddling clothes: Infants under one year old
; Toddler: Children aged 2-3;
Chui Tiao: Young children (also called "Zong Jiao") ;
Dou Kou: Girls aged thirteen
; Ji Ji: Girls aged fifteen
; Jia Guan: Boys aged twenty (also called "Ruo Guan");
Er Li Zhi Nian: Thirty years
old; Bu Huo Zhi Nian: Forty years old;
Zhi Ming Zhi Nian: Fifty years old (also called "Zhi Tian Ming" or "Ban Bai");
Hua Jia Zhi Nian: Sixty years old;
Gu Xi Zhi Nian: Seventy years old
; Mao Die Zhi Nian: Eighty or ninety years old;
Qi Yi Nian: One hundred years old.
[Major Ancient Festivals]
Yuan Ri: The first day of the first lunar month, the beginning of the year.
Ren Ri: The seventh day of the first lunar month, mainly for children.
Shang Yuan: The fifteenth day of the first lunar month, lanterns are displayed and games are played, also called "Lantern Festival".
She Ri: Around the Spring Equinox, sacrifices and prayers are offered for agricultural affairs.
Han Shi: Two days before Qingming Festival, fire is forbidden for three days (Wu Zixu)
. Qingming: Early April, tomb sweeping and sacrifices are offered. Dragon Boat Festival:
The fifth day of the fifth lunar month, eat zongzi (sticky rice dumplings) and race dragon boats (Qu Yuan). Qixi Festival: The seventh day of the seventh lunar month
, women pray for skill in needlework (Cowherd and Weaver Girl)
. Ghost Festival: The fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month, worship ghosts and gods, also called "Ghost Festival" .
Mid-Autumn Festival: The fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, admire the moon and think of home
. Double Ninth Festival: The ninth day of the ninth lunar month, climb mountains and wear dogwood to avoid disaster.
Winter Solstice: Also called "Winter Solstice", the starting point of the solar terms.
Laba Festival: The eighth day of the twelfth lunar month, when people drink "Laba porridge". New Year's
Eve: The last night of the year, a time to welcome the new year and bid farewell to the old.
[Wedding Anniversaries] 1st Year: Paper Wedding, 2nd Year: Cotton Wedding, 3rd Year: Leather Wedding, 4th Year: Fruit Wedding, 5th Year: Wood Wedding, 6th Year: Iron Wedding, 7th Year: Copper Wedding, 8th Year: Pottery Wedding, 9th Year: Willow Wedding, 10th Year: Aluminum Wedding, 11th Year: Steel Wedding, 12th Year: Silk Wedding, 13th Year: Ribbon Wedding, 14th Year: Ivory Wedding, 15th Year: Crystal Wedding, 20th Year: China Wedding, 25th Year: Silver Wedding. 30th Anniversary: Pearl Wedding; 35th Anniversary: Coral Wedding; 40th Anniversary: Ruby Wedding; 45th Anniversary: Sapphire Wedding; 50th Anniversary: Golden Wedding; 55th Anniversary: Emerald Wedding; 60th Anniversary: Diamond Wedding; 70th Anniversary: Platinum Wedding. [
Imperial Examinations and Official Titles] [Provincial Examination]: Successful candidates are called "Juren" (举人), with the top scorer called "Jieyuan" (解元). [Metropolitan Examination]: Successful candidates are called "Gongsheng" (贡生), with the top scorer called "Huiyuan" (会元). [Palace Examination]: Successful candidates are called "Jinshi" (进士), with the top scorer called "Zhuangyuan" (状元), the second-place candidate "Bangyan" (榜眼), and the third-place candidate "Tanhua" (探花).
[Four Books] *The Analects*, *The Doctrine of the Mean*, *The Great Learning*, *Mencius*.
[Five Classics] *The Book of Poetry*, *The Book of Documents*, *The Book of Rites*, *The Book of Changes*, *The Spring and Autumn Annals*
. [Eight-Legged Essay]: Breaking the Topic, Continuing the Topic, Beginning the Lecture, Starting the Essay, Beginning the Section, Middle Section, Later Section, Conclusion.
[The Six Classics] *Laozi*, *Zhuangzi*, *Liezi*, *Xunzi*, *Yangzi Fayan*, *Wenzhongzi Zhongshuo*
[The Six Scripts of Chinese Characters] Pictographs, Indicators, Phonetic Compounds, Associative Compounds, Derivative Characters, Loan Characters
[The Nine Styles of Calligraphy] Starting Brush, Turning Brush, Concealing Peak, Concealing Head, Protecting Tail, Swift Stroke, Sweeping Stroke, Hesitant Stroke, Horizontal and Vertical Lines
[The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove] Ji Kang, Liu Ling, Ruan Ji, Shan Tao, Ruan Xian, Xiang Xiu, Wang Rong [The Eight Immortals of the Wine Cup ]
Li Bai, He Zhizhang, Li Shizhi, Li Jin, Cui Zongzhi, Su Jin, Zhang Xu, Jiao Sui
[The Eight Immortals of Shu] Rong Chenggong, Li Er, Dong Cushu, Zhang Daoling, Yan Junping, Li Babai, Fan Changsheng, Erzhu Xiansheng [Eight Eccentrics
of Yangzhou] Zheng Banqiao, Wang Shishen, Li Shan, Huang Shen, Jin Nong, Gao Xiang, Li Fangying, Luo Ping [Four Great Masters of the Northern Song Dynasty] Huang Tingjian, Ouyang Xiu, Su Shi, Wang Anshi [Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song Dynasties] Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan, Ouyang Xiu, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong [Thirteen Classics] *I Ching*, *Classic of Poetry*, *Classic of History*, *Book of Rites*, *Book of Etiquette*, *Gongyang Commentary*, *Guliang Commentary*, *Zuo Commentary*, *Classic of Filial Piety*, *Analects*, *Erya*, *Mencius* 【Four Great Folk Legends】 *The Cowherd and the Weaver Girl*, *Meng Jiangnu*, *The Butterfly Lovers*, *The White Snake and Xu Xian* 【Four Great Cultural Heritages】 *Ming and Qing Archives*, *Oracle Bones from Yin Ruins*, *Han Bamboo Slips from Juyan*, *Dunhuang Manuscripts* 【Four Great Yuan Dynasty Dramas】 Guan Hanqing's *The Injustice to Dou E*, Wang Shifu's *The Romance of the Western Chamber*, Tang Xianzu's *The Peony Pavilion*, Hong Sheng's *The Palace of Eternal Life* 【Four Great Late Qing Dynasty Novels of Condemnation】 Li Baojia's *Officialdom Unmasked*, Wu Woyao's *Strange Events Witnessed in Twenty Years*, Liu E's *The Travels of Lao Can*, Zeng Pu's *A Flower in a Sea of Sin* 【Shakespeare's Four Great Tragedies】 *Hamlet*, *King Lear*, *Macbeth*, *Othello* 【Five Colors】Blue, Yellow, Red, White, Black 【Five Tones】Gong, Shang, Jiao, Zhi, Yu 【Seven Treasures】Gold, Silver, Glass, Coral, Tridacna, Pearl, Agate 【Nine Palaces】Zheng Gong, Zhong Lü Gong, Nan Lü Gong, Xian Lü Gong, Huang Zhong Gong, Da Mian Diao, Shuang Diao, Shang Diao, Yue Diao 【Seven Arts】Painting, Music, Sculpture, Drama, Literature, Architecture, Film 【Four Famous Porcelain Kilns】Cizhou Kiln in Hebei, Longquan Kiln in Zhejiang, Jingdezhen Kiln in Jiangxi, Dehua Kiln in Fujian 【Four Great Dan Actors】Mei Lanfang, Cheng Yanqiu, Shang Xiaoyun, Xun Huisheng 【Six Rites】Capping Ceremony, Wedding Ceremony, Funeral Ceremony, Sacrifice Ceremony, Village Drinking Ceremony, Meeting Ceremony 【Six Arts 】Rites, Music, Archery, Charioteering, Calligraphy, Mathematics 【Six Principles】Feng (folk songs), Fu (descriptive poems), Bi (metaphorical poems), Xing (evocative imagery), Ya (elegant poems), Song (hymns) 【Eight Banners】Bordered Yellow Banner Yellow, white, white, red, red, blue, blue [Ten Evils] Treason, rebellion, treason, evil deeds, immorality, disrespect, filial impiety, discord, injustice, internal strife [Nine Schools of Thought] Confucianism, Taoism, Yin-Yang School, Legalism, School of Names, Mohism, School of Diplomacy, Miscellaneous School, Agricultural School [Three Mountains] Huangshan Mountain (Anhui), Lushan Mountain (Jiangxi), Yandang Mountain (Zhejiang) [Five Ridges] Yuecheng Ridge, Dupang Ridge, Mengzhu Ridge, Qitian Ridge, Dayu Ridge [Five Sacred Mountains] Central Sacred Mountain (Henan), Eastern Sacred Mountain (Shandong), Western Sacred Mountain (Shaanxi), Southern Sacred Mountain (Hunan), Northern Sacred Mountain (Shanxi) [Five Lakes] Poyang Lake (Jiangxi), Dongting Lake (Hunan), Taihu Lake (Jiangsu), Hongze Lake (Jiangsu), Chaohu Lake (Anhui) 【Four Seas】Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, South China Sea 【Four Famous Bridges】Guangji Bridge, Zhaozhou Bridge, Luoyang Bridge, Lugou Bridge 【Four Famous Gardens】Summer Palace (Beijing), Mountain Resort (Chengde, Hebei), Humble Administrator's Garden (Suzhou, Jiangsu), Lingering Garden (Suzhou, Jiangsu) 【Four Famous Temples】Lingyan Temple (Changqing, Shandong), Guoqing Temple (Tiantai, Zhejiang), Yuquan Temple (Jiangling, Hubei), Qixia Temple (Nanjing, Jiangsu) 【Four Famous Towers】Yueyang Tower (Yueyang, Hunan), Yellow Crane Tower (Wuhan, Hubei), Tengwang Pavilion (Nanchang, Jiangxi), Daguan Tower (Kunming, Yunnan) 【Four Famous Pavilions】Zuiweng Pavilion (Chuxian, Anhui), Taoran Pavilion (Xiannongtan, Beijing), Aiwan Pavilion (Changsha, Hunan), Huxin Pavilion (West Lake, Hangzhou) 【Four Ancient Towns】Jingdezhen (Jiangxi), Foshan Town (Guangdong), Hankou Town (Hubei), Zhuxian Town (Henan) 【Four Great Stele Forests】Xi'an Stele Forest (Xi'an, Shaanxi), Confucius Temple Stele Forest (Qufu, Shandong), Earthquake Stele Forest (Xichang, Sichuan), South Gate Stele Forest (Kaohsiung, Taiwan) 【Four Famous Pagodas】Songyue Temple Pagoda (Songyue Temple, Dengfeng, Henan), Feihong Pagoda (Guangsheng Temple, Hongdong, Shanxi), Sakyamuni Pagoda (Fogong Temple, Yingxian, Shanxi), Qianxun Pagoda (Chongsheng Temple, Dali, Yunnan) 【Four Great Grottoes】Mogao Grottoes (Dunhuang, Gansu), Yungang Grottoes (Datong, Shanxi), Longmen Grottoes (Luoyang, Henan), Maijishan Grottoes (Tianshui, Gansu) 【Four Great Academies】Bailudong Academy (Lushan, Jiangxi), Yuelu Academy (Changsha, Hunan), Songyang Academy (Songshan, Henan), Yingtian Academy (Shangqiu, Henan) 【Four Famous Buddhist Mountains】Mount Putuo (Guanyin Bodhisattva) (Zhejiang), Mount Wutai (Manjushri Bodhisattva) (Shanxi), Mount Emei (Samantabhadra Bodhisattva) (Sichuan), Mount Jiuhua (Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva) (Anhui) 【Four Famous Taoist Mountains】Wudang Mountain (Hubei), Longhu Mountain (Jiangxi), Qiyun Mountain (Anhui), Qingcheng Mountain (Sichuan) 【Five Elements】Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, Earth 【Eight Trigrams】Qian (Heaven), Kun (Earth), Zhen (Thunder), Xun (Wind), Kan (Water), Li (Fire), Gen (Mountain), Dui (Marsh) 【Three Sovereigns】Fuxi, Nuwa, Shennong 【Five Emperors】Taihao, Yandi, Huangdi, Shaohao, Zhuanxu 【Three Religions】Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism 【Three Pure Ones】Yuanshi Tianzun (Qingwei Heaven Jade Pure Realm), Lingbao Tianzun (Yu Yu Heaven Upper Pure Realm), Daode Tianzun (Da Chi Heaven Tai Pure Realm) 【Four Emperors】The Supreme Jade Emperor of the Golden Palace of the Vast Heaven, the Great Emperor of the Purple Palace of the Central Heaven, the Empress of the Upper Palace of Gouchen, and the Earthly Emperor who follows the laws of Heaven. 【Eight Immortals】Li Tieguai, Zhongli Quan, Zhang Guolao, Lü Dongbin, He Xiangu, Lan Caihe, Han Xiangzi, and Cao Guojiu. 【Eighteen Arhats】The Bag Arhat, the Long-Eyebrow Arhat, the Banana Tree Arhat, the Contemplative Arhat, the Tiger-Taming Arhat, the River-Crossing Arhat, the Joyful Arhat, the Dragon-Subduing Arhat, the Meditation Arhat, the Bowl-Holding Arhat, the Happy Arhat, the Gatekeeper Arhat, the Elephant-Riding Arhat, the Hand-Reaching Arhat, the Pagoda-Bearing Arhat, the Ear-Cleaning Arhat, the Laughing Lion Arhat, and the Deer-Riding Arhat.
【Eighteen Levels of Hell】[Level 1] Hell of Mud Plowing, [Level 2] Hell of Knife Mountain, [Level 3] Hell of Boiling Sand, [Level 4] Hell of Boiling Excrement, [Level 5] Hell of Black Body, [Level 6] Hell of Chariot Fire, [Level 7] Hell of Boiling Soup in a Cauldron, [Level 8] Hell of Iron Bed, [Level 9] Hell of Covered Mountain, [Level 10] Hell of Freezing Ice, [Level 11] Hell of Skinning, [Level 12] Hell of Animals, [Level 13] Hell of Weapons, [Level 14] Hell of Iron Mill, [Level 15] Hell of Freezing Ice, [Level 16] Hell of Iron Book, [Level 17] Hell of Maggots, [Level 18] Hell of Molten Copper
. 【Five Internal Organs】Heart, Liver, Spleen, Lung, Kidney.
【Six Bowels】Stomach, Gallbladder, Three... Burner, Bladder, Large Intestine, Small Intestine
; [Seven Emotions] Joy, Anger, Sorrow, Happiness, Love, Hate, Desire;
[Five Constant Virtues] Benevolence, Righteousness, Propriety, Wisdom, Trustworthiness;
[Five Relationships
] Ruler and Subject, Father and Son, Brothers, Husband and Wife, Friends; [Three Aunts] Buddhist Nun, Taoist Nun, Divination Nun
; [Six Grannies] Matchmaker, Brothel Matron, Sorcerer, Prostitute, Herbalist, Midwife;
[Nine Relatives] Great-grandson, Great-grandson, Grandson, Son, Self, Father, Grandfather, Great-grandfather, Great-great-grandfather ;
[Five Grains] Rice, Millet, Sorghum, Wheat, Beans;
[Eight Major Chinese Cuisines] Sichuan Cuisine, Hunan Cuisine, Shandong Cuisine, Jiangsu Cuisine, Zhejiang Cuisine, Guangdong Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine, Anhui Cuisine;
[Five Poisons] Gallstone, Cinnabar, Realgar, Alum, Magnetite;
[Seven Prescriptions] Major Prescription, Minor Prescription, Slow-Acting Prescription, Urgent Prescription, Extraordinary Prescription, Even Prescription, Compound Prescription.
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